"A PRINCE ought to have no other aim or thought, nor select anything else for his study, than war and its rules and discipline." Machiavelli[1]
Chapter Eleven. 1930: EMPEROR
I. THE KING AND THE KING OF KINGS
What is power if not a struggle with power, overpowering the
existing forces? We, the outsiders, can't fully envision the
powers Ras Tafari had to deal with. Powerless, we imagine nothing but a vacuum instead of power fields he was placed in....
The world "empire" became popular and to the point of being ridiculous. We think of symbolic not real powers, we like the magic flavor of the concept of Empire....
1. CORONATION OF NEGA NEGUS
It was a day of his public marriage to the country. As usual he
rose early and read his daily morning prayer, the verses from the
chapter one of the book of the prophet Jeremiah: "Thou therefore
gird up thy lions, and arise, and speak unto them all that I
command thee: be not dismayed at their faces, lest I confound
thee before them...." He was in confort talking to God, he knew
questioned by the silence, he knew that Lord was listening. "For,
behold, I have made thee this day a defenced city, and an iron
pillar, and brazen walls against the whole land, against the
kings of Judah, against the princes thereof, against the priests
thereof, and against the people of the land." He will walk his
path and he renewed his promice this morning at sunrise. He won't
be discouraged. "And they shall fight against thee: but they
shall not prevail against three; for I am with thee, said the
Lord, to deliver three."[2]
In 1930 he was 38. Most of his life was a Ras. A prince, not
a king, till two years ago. Not King of Kings. Till now. He had
no excuses anymore. Now no man was above him, only God. Now was
the time to fulfil his destiny. That was his birthday, the day
when a new man was born and his name was Haile Sellassie The
First. This name was new to Tafari, he had to get use to the
sound of it. Eerything around was the same, he was different. Now
was the time to let them know that the new emperor will give
birth to new Ethiopia. It was a new month -- November.
Many came. They say, local and foreign dignitaries arrived at Addis Ababa on horseback, train and airplains. On the day before, November the Second, Empress and Emperor were greeting them while a visiting
British naval band played the newly composed national anthem. The
300.000 British pounds show started. And many wrote about this day.
It was a good day to be seen. There are many such days under
13 months of Ethiopian sunshine. He was about to face them all.
It was his day, the moment of triumph. He had to remember the
words of Lord. Power is a war which knows no truce. New powers
ask for more battles. It was Sunday.
"...all in Addis Ababa began to prepare for the impressive
event of the morning. The Conquering Lion of the Tribe of Judah
and his Empress have just completed a night of prayer and
devotion at the most high alter within. Through the early morning
the chanting of praises continued, accompanied by the dancing of
the priest with their great pulsating drumbs, the whole
suggestive of the Ancient Jewish rites which were in use at the
time of King David danced before the Arc of the Covenant.
Proceeded by waving incense burners, His Imperial Majesty,
attired in white silk communion robes, entered the ceremonial
hall with an escort of aides and clergy, and took his place upon
the Throne. The thrilling but solemn silence gently breaks to
the throaty voice of his holiness the Abuna Kyrillos: "Ye princes
and ministers, ye nobles and chiefs of the army, ye soldiers and
people of Ethiopia, and ye doctors and chiefs of the clergy, ye
professors and priest, look ye upon our Emperor Haile Selassie
the First, descended from the dynasty of Menelic the First, who
was born of Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, a dynasty perpetuated
without interruption from the time of King Sehale and our times.
Forty nine bishops and priests of this ancient Christian
country, in groups of seven, have held place for seven days and
nights in the seven corners of the National Cathedral to chant
without ceasing nine Psalms of David. They are now joined by
hundreds more. The established Coptic Church is revered and
all-powerful in Ethiopia. This is a day when it may and does show
its impressive might and splendor.
The Emperor, whose name is Anglicized as Power of the Holy
Trinity, before the questioning of the Abuna gives his sacred
pledge to uphold the Orthodox religion of the Church, to support
and administer the laws of the country for the betterment of the
people, to maintain the integrety of Ethiopia, and to found
schools for development the Spiritual and Material welfare of her
subjects.
Chanting and prayers to the God of Gods rise from a
multitude of priestly throats and reverberate from the lofty
ceiling of the Cathedral. One by one with the solemn rites and
blessings of the high Ethiopian clergy, He received the
Gold-Embroidered Scarlet Robes, the Jeweled Sword, Imperial Gold
Septer, the Orb, the Diamond Encrusted Ring, and two Gold
Filigree Lances in token of His position and responsability.
Following ancient customs, as when Samuel anointed David, and
Zodak and Nathan anointed Solomon, so the Abuna anointed His
Majestys head with oil. Seven differently scented ointments of
ancient prescription are received on the Imperial head, brow, and
shoulders. He then concluded with the words,: "That God make this
Crown a Crown of Glory. That, by the Grace and the blessing
which we have given, you may have an Unshaken Faith and a Pure
Heart, in order that you may inherit the Crown Eternal.
So be it."
The centuries seemed to have slipped suddenly backwards into
Biblical ritual.
The assembly applauded their greeting, and the visiting
naval band played the National Anthem, while outside cannons
roared a salute of 101 guns, and cheer after cheer came from
thousands of sublects massed in the vicinity of the Cathedral.
The final ceremonies is a grand tour of the Cathedral by
their Imperial Majesties. There are escorted by the bishops and
priest, the princes and high dignitaries, assistants and others,
carrying Palm Branches and chanting in Mighty Volume, "BLESSED BE
THE KING OF ISRAEL."[3]
At 8 am the coronation began at the St. George's Cathedral.
Two hours later a 101-gun salute was fired and the Emperor went
for a two-mile journey through his capital in spender of the
Husburgs royal carriage bought and delivered for this occasion.
The weeks were spent in feasts and receptions. On December 7
the masses witnessed a huge military parade with Emperor in his
field-marshall uniform. Imperial Bodyguards with modern rifles,
machine-guns and bazookas in khaki uniforms demonstrated to all,
domestic and foreign, allies and enemies, that Haile Sellassie is
in charge and committed to New Ethiopia. He always was called the
best public relation man of Africa. It was a demonstration and it
served the purpose. He was King of Kings for his subjects and the
leader of Ethiopia for the world.
Tafari a devoted student of politics knew that he has to be
ahead of changes. He has to be the change and never a re-action
to imposed from outside changes. Being ahead, and play their
games, prophet is the best adviser of a ruler. King has to have
both, he has to be both. Good king is the change for better....
And above all things, a prince ought to live amongst his people in such a way that no unexpected circumstances, whether of good or evil, shall make him change; because if the necessity for this comes in
troubled times, you are too late for harsh measures; and mild ones will not help you, for they will be considered as forced from you, and no one will be under any obligation to you for them.[4]
Oh, if only he can follow this wisdom at the times of Revolution! But the year of 1974 was too far ahead, almost a half a century later. Even 1935 was a few years ahead. He didn't know what we know. And the world didn't know him. Even his own people knew nothing about their their new ruler, emperor Haile Sellassie I. In 1930 he was full of energy and expectations. The future was wide open and promising. He was ready for changes without waiting for them to come. He came that far and they listen, he wanted to go further and had to find the ways between harsh and mild measures for them to follow. His new name -- "The Power of Trinity" -- and his "The First" -- the sings of his intentions. He, first, and then them, the country. Oh, yes, that was the day of changes, the last for Tafari, first for Haile Sellassie I. The country should see it, must remember this day, the Coronation Day.
2. MONARCHISM: NOTES ON TWO FORGOTTEN CONSTITUTIONS
Constitutional monarchy is a monarchy in name only. HIM was
interested in this concept politically and intellectually. Very
little is understood by the royalist party Moambasada of the complexity of this paradigm of monarchy. Unfortunatelly, as a result of this lack of knowledge and experience, it lost any support and almost vanished from Ethiopian political scene as a movement. The understanding of monarchy could save Ethiopia many lives...
There is always the last man pays for all the wrongs of the
past. The countries are conquered, the empires fall apart. The
system of power for modernization he built wasn't modern. Haile
Sellassie, King of Kings, Power of the Trinity, Conquering Lion
of the Tribe of Judah, Elect of God, Defender of the Faith, 225th
descendent of the dynasty born of the biblical love of the Queen
of Sheba and king Solomon, was replaced by a committee of
soldiers. That was a radical step in modernization. The power of
one passed away forever. He was the last emperor to closed the
last chapter in the book of classical history. In 1974 he did
little to save the throne, his family and himself. "Was it murder
or suicide?" -- asks Lefort in his good book "A Heretic
revolution."(74)[5] This question is of a modern mind which doesn't
believe in divine destiny. He was Ethiopia and they were one and
died together.
The form "within analysis" of culture is important because
an observer, an outsider, with all the advantages of seeing more
from the distance would be inclined to link the facts according
to his "model," not according to hidden "disciplines" of culture.
If Foucault's methodology of "disciplined society" could be fully
applied to cultural studies, we have to study the distribution of
power within that particular culture. Traditional societies were
based not on legal (written) law but on "living" law, represented
by a king (Solomonic wisdom). An Ethiopian emperor was a system
of an inner relations of people in all their multiplicity.
Monarchy was first a cultural, not a political system. The family
was constitutionalized, succession outside of the family had
become unconstitutional and the transition of power from the
emperor to the crown prince proven to be even more difficult as
seen by the events of 1974. The crown prince at the time was in
Europe, and when the military requested for him to replace his
father, he flatly refused to return to Ethiopia; the throne was
empty.
The article 2 of the 1975 Constitution states: "The imperial
dignity shall remain perpetually attached to the line of Haile
Sellassie I, descendent of King Sahle Sellassie, whose line
descends without interruption from the dynasty of Menelik I, son
of the Queen of Ethiopia, the Queen of Sheba, and King Solomon of
Jerusalem." HIM wrote into a constitutionalized law what Menelik
asked him to swear before naming Yasu as his heir.
"Uninterrupted" claim, of course, is doubtful; the idea was more
important than facts.
My children: princess and prince. Well... What does it mean? What
should it be? The mystery of dem doesn't reveal its logic.
"Blood" is a sense of blood, a call from within, personal and
secret. It's an understanding of value of being "born of," which
is different from "being born." Conceptually, "blue blood" is a
selected, special, unique blood, which shouldn't be mix with any
blood but with the one of the same quality. In darwinist terms it
could seen as in-breeding.
Treating yourself as royalty when Family seen as a STATE
BUSINESS (social model). Old Joe Kennedy did it in one
generation, the sons also played the part. POMO position of every
man -- king.
The principle of Constitutionalism is in a contradiction
with the idea of absolutism. Constitution separates power from a
living ruler to a living law. Monarch sets the rules which he is
obliged to follow. It's still nothing less than his will. That's
why all existing constitutional monarchies give kings only
ceremonial no-power roles. Chapter Two: "The Powers and
prerogatives of the Emperor" can't solve the fundamental problem
of modern structure of power, which asks for a control mechanism.
Democratic division of powers ask for non-personal character of
governing. Haile Sellassie faced the task of deposing himself.
Was he or Ethiopia ready for it?
From 1930 to 1955 many events took place in Ethiopia and the
world: although is hard to see that the quarter century passed
between the two constitutions. There was no constitutional
thought or movement in the country. It common to think that
Ethiopia went through changes as no other country. Is it so?
Russia went through no less dramatic and radical transformations.
What about Japan or Korea? How unique is the national experience?
Not much, according to marxists. They were right, for a while.
[We keep forgetting that Europe went through the agonies of
two great wars and paid for its lessons in democracy. What about
the changes Germany went through?]
Secondary, we usually keep an intellectual development of
the nation outside of historical analysis. We notice its impact
only at the moment when the new forces (ideas) come to the
historical surface as events. This lack of interest to the idea
of constitutional monarchy cost the coup of 1960 and the
revolution of 1974. There was no development of the concept of
monarchy throughout the whole reign and the royal house came to
test of history unprepared. The idea of monarch wasn't
modernized.
Modernization and institutionalization of the modern:
government is a force, needed centralization. "Revolution from
above" was the model for changes in the world where changes were
treated as revolt. The change could come only from the center --
the palace. To reconstruct the order of things H.S. has to
deconstruct the monarchy, redefine it. It can't be done with a
destruction in a time span less than one generation.
Decentralization of the central government, Federal idea
finally came to Ethiopia? History undoing what the Emperor
strived for. The 20th century history river like to change its
course -- often to reverse itself.
...
Emperor v. kings. Central and regional -- right way to see
the binary? The balance. The game to play all the time. It was a
day to reflect. King of Shoa, this event has little significance,
almost a formal step on his way to the throne of the emperor. A
recognition of the powers of Ras Tafari. His leadership was
accepted. His promise to Menelik was already broken.
The palace coup of October 1928 was short. Empress Zewditu
send the imperial guards to arrest the regent. His wife, Mennen,
sent for a loyal troops -- it was an open war. That was the
moment when Ras Tafari from a chosen overlord became a ruler. He
became Negus. In March of 1930 Prince Gugsa of Gondar was killed.
The day after her husband defeat on the battlefield Empress died
and was buried within six hours. Ras was about to start his
modernization by decree.
His son was sixteen at the time of coronation. With his
father's ascendence to the throne of the emperor Asfa Wossen
became the Crown Prince and Duke of Harar. He was young and next
in line. The was a shadow of his father's power. Haile Sellassie
and the Crown Prince were no exception to this classical
situation. During the 1960 unsuccessful coup, the Crown Prince
was pronounced as a new Emperor of Ethiopia. This was to strain
the father son relationship as the father never forgot or forgave
his son.
Richard Pankhurst writers that "the text thus recalled the
words of Moses: `Thou shalt in any wise set him king over thee
whom the Lord thy God shall choose; one from among thy brethren
shalt thou set king over thee: thou mayest not set a stranger
over thee, which is not thy brother.' (Deuteronomy, XVII,15)"
Pankhurst traces royal ceremonies through Ethiopian history
emphasis the "family" relation between the monarch and his
subjects. The absolute power of master over servant which
survived well into the twentieth century, to an outsider would be
seen an slavery (even though it was outlawed by Haile Sellassie
after his coronation in 1930). The divine dynamic of power
(since a king is in total power of God) has to be extended all
the way down; king -- subject has to be in the same totally
unequal position. The equality in nature (thy brother in God)
expressed itself as extreme inequality on the social level.
There is another specific point in Ethiopian model of
monarch, expressed in the imperial title: "King of Kings" is the
name biblically reserved for Jesus (Revelations). Second, "Lion
of Juda" in the Bible refers again to Jesus as a son of David.
Those two qualities alone make the Emperor the Third Adam, or
Jesus of resurrection. It is interesting that Rastafarians picked
up this aspect of Ethiopian Kingship and took it one step
further, naming him Jah.
The story of Ras Tafari replacing Yasu, the blood heir of
Emperor Menelik, is the best example of the relation between the
power of church and the royal power. Yasu, experimenting with
Islam, was never blessed by the church, and because of this his
legitimacy as emperor became questionable. Ras Tafari used this
point in his struggle for the throne.
II. THE RULER AS A MANAGER OF POWER
A prince, therefore, ought always to take counsel, but
only when he wishes and not when others wish; he ought
rather to discourage every one from offering advice
unless he asks it; but, however, he ought to be a
constant inquirer, and afterwards a patient listener
concerning the things of which he inquired; also, on
learning that any one, on any consideration, has not
told him the truth, he should let his anger be felt.6
The new emperor did something radical and potentially
dangerous. He hired several foreign advisers: an Englishman in
the Ministry of Interior, two Frenchmen to the Ministry of Posts,
Telegraphs and Telephones (and for arms-purchasing); one
American, German, Greek, and two Swiss. The emperor was in
desperate need of new people for Ne Ethiopia and he found them
abroad. How different was his style!
"Given Ethiopia's limited resources and educated manpower,
projects were mostly privately financed: the emperor, the royal
family, the aristocracy, the national and foreign bourgeoisie,
all profited from investments in transport companies or toll-road
construction consortia."7 It should be emphasized that all the
above were the only source of financing, the country has no
middle class and doesn't have it now. The national currency and
the state bank were establish during the emperor's reign. The
changes were limited not only by a resistance to changes but the
lack of wealth. Creation of economics was and is the main problem
of Africa. Economics and politics have a complicated relationship
even in theory.
A lot is said about "objective" circumstances of history.
What was the special feature of Ethiopian Absolute Monarchy? The
first constitution which was announced on the 16th of July, 1931
was a free-will grant of the Emperor. The idea of constitutional
monarchy was imposed on the country which didn't ask for it.
Therefore even with establishing the Parliament (Article 7)
Ethiopia always remained an absolute monarchy. Emperor was the
supreme power in symbolic and real terms.
III. KING: AN ANTHROPOLOGICAL MODEL
What does "Emperor" mean when viewed within an Ethiopian
cultural framework? The basic model of an Ethiopian monarchy must
have its particular criteria and the evaluation of data must take
into account the Ethiopian cultural context.
Our present sense of culture is based on written laws,
codes, rules, texts, etc. therefore making it difficult to adapt
our minds to traditional cultures, as unwritten systems of power.
Unless we are ready to view a culture as a chain of links or as
what Foucault would call "disciplines" which are organized into a
whole. It will be difficult to understand the ideologies of
traditional cultures which are not expressed in open forms as is
the case in our constitution, instead they are comprised of
numerous invisible limitations passed on from generation to
generation.
"Discipline" may be identified neither with an institution
nor with an apparatus; it is a type of power, a modality
for its exercise, comprising a whole set of instruments,
techniques, procedures, levels of application, targets; it
is a "physics" or an "anatomy" of power, a technology.8
Ethiopian culture as any other culture is like a maze of
"disciplines" which in their interaction create the identity of
"Ethiopian" culture as a power. Only in view of this complexity
of living "organism" of culture can we understand why a culture
has its powers over people. What holds them together and why do
they act in their specific manners and styles? A cultural
approach is not a substitute for economic or socio-political
analysis but an essential component and a complimentary method in
the understanding of ethnic and national identities.9
1. HISTORICAL AND ONTOLOGICAL OVERVIEW OF KING'S POWER
It is interesting to notice that the original title of
Kapuscinski's book in Polish is "Cesarz."10 The selection of term
"Caesar" v. Emperor (or Tzar) is problematic. Autocracy of
Ethiopian monarch although bearing many resemblances of European,
Russian or any other forms of absolute monarchy, has still its
own specifics which makes it "Ethiopian" Imperial model. What are
these distinguishing features?
The Emperor in Amharic translates as Nega Negus or "King of
Kings," not "First Among Equals" but the ruler of rulers.
Absolute ruler of absolute autocrats? Europe went through this
transformation of powers at the time of formation of national
states. Ethiopia by that account was a new nation.
Multi-ethnicity was known to practitioners of power long before
we invented this name. As an empire Ethiopia has no more than two
generations behind. By the turn of the century Menelik made a
small central highland kingdom into a country of the size of
France and Spain combined. Even the idea of emperor was restored
two generation before Menelik. The use of name Abyssinia is the
reference to Amhara, the advanced tribe, which lead the country
to the imperial state. Haile Sellassie inherited a fresh empire
with no tradition of imperial existence. He made use of Menelik's
given habit of empire; it was Ethiopia not Abyssinia.
This Ethiopian concept of an emperor, is a self-conflicting
formula. At the time of the final formation of the imperial rule
in Ethiopia in 19th century, the power structure was consistent
with three major elements: the traditional aristocracy, the
Orthodox Church and the monarchy. Since the Imperial stage of
monarchy has an ontological contradiction within, it and makes
the existence of the Empire into a "crisis management." "Nega
Negus" was supposed to rule the rulers, emperor -- the country. A
king, by definition, is the pinnacle of social hierarchy. Thus
the institutionalization of an emperor had to lead to the demise
of the institution of the kings. This process of destruction and
self-destruction of the traditional aristocracy took place during
the imperial faze.
2. NOBEL MAN
There's an ontological contradiction within
the mechanism of "nobility" itself:
Noble means the "well known," that is, known by
everyone, famous, he who has made himself known by
excelling the anonymous mass. It implies an unusual
effort as the cause of his fame. Noble, then, is
equivalent to effortful, excellent. The nobility or
fame of the son is pure benefit. The son is known
because the father made himself famous. He is known by
reflection, and in fact, hereditary nobility has an
indirect character, it is mirrored light, lunar
nobility, something derived from the dead. The only
thing left to it of living, authentic, dynamic is the
impulse it stirs in the descendant to maintain the
level of effort reached by the ancestor. (G 7)
The new aristocracy had to own everything not their fathers
but the father of the nation -- emperor. He is their true and
only family.
Always, even in this altered sense, noblesse oblige.
The original noble lays an obligation on himself, the
noble heir receives the obligation with his
inheritance. But in any case there is a certain
contradiction in the passing-on of nobility from the
first noble to his successors. (Ortega Y Gassett. 7)
The complexity of the Royal Family as a social (state)
apparatus is reflected in the 1st chapter of the Ethiopian
Constitution. In addition there are almost 30 articles describing
the accession to the throne. Aside from the natural links between
father and son, in the case of the Royal Family the two are
inter-connected by duties to the nation. King-Son by situation is
positioned to compete with King-Father. In order to be a true
descendant the son has to out-perform his father; thus creating a
perpetual conflict between the two. Further more, the first born
in some cases did not necessarily posses the qualities required
in an heir.
Therefore within the royal "family machine" this drama is
always present; what Ortega Y Gassett calls "Tragedy of
Aristocracy":
The aristocrat inherits, that is to say, he finds
attributed to his person, conditions of life which he
has not created, and which, therefore, are not produced
in organic union with his personal, individual
existence. At birth he finds himself installed,
suddenly and without knowing how, in the midst of his
riches and his prerogatives. In his own self, he has
nothing to do with them, because they do not come from
him. They are the giant armor of some other person,
some other human being, his ancestor. And he has to
live as an heir, that is to say, he has to wear the
trappings of another existence. What does this bring us
to? What life is the "aristocrat" by inheritance going
to lead, his own or that of his first noble ancestor?
Neither one nor the other. He is condemned to represent
the other man, consequently to be neither that other
nor himself. Inevitably his life loses all
authenticity, and is transformed into pure
representation or fiction of another life. The
abundance of resources that he is obliged to make use
of gives him no chance to live out his own personal
destiny, his life is atrophied. All life is the
struggle, the effort to be itself. The difficulties
which I meet with in order to realize my existence are
precisely what awakens and mobilizes my activities, my
capacities. If my body was not a weight to me, I should
not be able to walk. If the atmosphere did not press on
me, I should feel my body as something vague, flabby,
unsubstantial. So in the "aristocratic" heir his whole
individuality grows vague, for lack of use and vital
effort. The result is that specific stupidity of "our
old nobility" which is unlike anything else -- a
stupidity which, strictly speaking, has never yet been
described in its intimate, tragic mechanism -- that
tragic mechanism which leads all hereditary aristocracy
to irremediable degeneration. [G XI]
This natural contradiction within the aristocracy grows
with each generation into an unsolvable inner conflict. Perhaps,
that's the reason for violent changes, which takes place in any
royal court, and the Ethiopian one was no exception.
Leaving aside the complexity of imperial ideology in
relation to the "second," "moral" power (church), we see that the
"monarchy idea," as a form of power production and distribution,
has at least three fundamental conflicts: 1) within aristocracy
as a class, 2) on the level of "king-kings" redistribution of
power, 3) the duality of "imperial" in modernity. How were these
conflicts able to unravel themselves historically during Haile
Sellassie's reign?
In 1955, during the celebration of the 25 anniversary of his
accession to the throne, the Emperor promulgated a new version of
the constitution. Since the "imperial' stage of monarchy is
already a "modernization" of a traditional power structure, the
actual process of perpetual modernization (which was required of
the imperial stage of governing) forced the emperor to satisfy
two mutually exclusive tendencies: the past and the future. This
duality is visible in the 1955 constitution.11 The classical
Ethiopian book "Fetha Negast" describes the Scriptual reasons for
a king's power, Haile Sellassie saw his constitutional monarchy
as a chance to give the traditional monarchy a written and legal
power. Ras Tafari's own way to the throne had taken place by
means of a traditional Ethiopian power structure. He went through
a rapid succession of traditional titles and corresponding
duties, beginning as a dedjazmatch (leader, or field marshal; as
well as "son of Ras") then he became a Ras, and from Ras Tafari
to Negus to Emperor Haile Sellassie I (the changing of name is
equivalent to the assumption of a new personal identity). Having
Royal blood was a necessary condition for "competing" for a title
but it was not by any means an entitlement. The Emperor himself
went through all the stages of "managerial" competency (or
training) before he could be "promoted" to the next level and was
granted a title. Traditionally, a son of a king has to start at
the dedjazmatch level, which was given by the order of the
emperor. As dejamatch he served in the capacity, of a governor of
a province. Only then could he be promoted to the status of Ras,
which was at the same time his birth right. This double
requirement was there to insure that a ruler was "capable" and
"able" to continue his journey to his father's position. Ras
Tafari himself served as a regent for eleven years before he
receive the title Negus in 1928. The traditional model was
designed to balance the imperial rights with the imperial duties.
Another contradiction, can be seen in the model of the
"modern autocrat" as it became institutionalized as a
constitutional monarchy. "Indisputable power" of emperor in
absolute, not constitutional, monarchy makes any law outside of
emperor impossible.
By virtue of his imperial blood, as well as by the
anointing which he has received, the person of the emperor
is sacred. His dignity is inviolable and his power
indisputable. He is, consequently, entitled to all the
honors due to him in accordance with tradition and the
present constitution. (from Article 4. of the
constitution of 1955)
Thus, the document which declared Ethiopia a constitutional
monarchy was in contradiction with the very notion of absolute
monarch. The constitution itself made absolute powers into
"rights of emperor" -- that was the begining of the end of
imperial Ethiopia. The stage of economic imperialism is an alien
environment for absolutism. Absolutism emerged out of the family,
(tribal) rule and was extremely concentrated type of governing.
It is a model whereby all the governing forces had to be
connected to the center, in the hands of the king. The principles
of absolutism made it impossible for Haile Sellassie to manage
the country and was and consequently it became one of the reasons
for the fall of the monarchy.
Ethiopian aristocracy...
The judgement by foreigners that in contrast to the
allegedly egalitarian pattern of the Somali clans,
Ethiopian society is aristocracy-oriented, is distorted
and considerably of the mark. (S 121)
What does constitute an Ethiopian "aristocrat"? "But titles
in general were not hereditary, were mostly military, and had to
be earned by each generation,*" writes Spencer (S 122). Anobel
boy must learn how to serve, he has to start from the bottom of
the leader of powers. This is an aprentenship of a ruling class.
Spencer stresses the service aspect of receiving a title by
pointing that usually military acheavements lead to the status in
Ethiopian high society:
* No titles are hereditary, even in the case of members
of lineage aristocracies. All had to be won on proof of
merit. While most of the titles were awarded by the
Emperor, local dignitaries frequently granted titles below
their own rank. Thus, a Dedjazmatch could, for proven merit
and for lifetime only, award a local title of Fitawrari.
Starting with Blatta, a title of dignity signifying a
youth of learning, the order of ascendancy rose with age and
distinction to that of Blatengueta. With these came the
military titles of Shambel (Captain), Shaleka (Major),
Balambaras (Commander of the Fort), Grazmatch (Leader of the
Left Wing), Kegnazmatch (Leader of the Right Wing). Above
Blatengueta and this military title came Fitawrari
(Commander of the Vanguard), this title was always taken by
the minister of war (later defense) upon his appointment to
the post even though at the time he may have held a higher
title. Still higher came Dedjazmatch (Count, Marshal of
Provisional Headquarters) although not necessarily a
military title. Tsahafi Taezaz (The Writer of the Order,
Minister of the Pen), Afe Negus (The Mouth of the Emperor,
Lord Chief Justice), Bitwodded (Beloved), Ras (Head of
Province), Ras Bitwodded; Leul (Prince) Ras. The Crown
Prince bore the full title of Leul Merid Azmatch Asfa Wossen
Haile Sellassie Ye Ityopya Negusa Negusi Alga Worash. His
short and usual title is Asfa Worash. The Empress had the
title of Itegue and the Emperor that of Negus Negusti (King
of Kings). In conversation he was frequently referred to as
Djanhoi (His Majesty). In the course of work at the office,
he was often signified by the appellation Getoch -- the
respectful plural of Gueta. Ato (Mr.), Woizero (Mrs.),
Woizerit (Miss) and Gueta (Master, Sir) constitute forms of
address rather than titles. (S 137)
The Emperor was the center of the Aristocratic idea. The top
of the hierrarchy, which in a similar manner has to be taken, not
given. By force. Emperor finilized these "personal" victories.
Land, titles, an appointments to office were generally
held at the will of the Emperor: `The Lord Giveth and
the Lord Taketh Away.' This emphasis on lifetime rather
than inheritable grants of titles and lands as reward
for intelligence and for services already rendered (or
in prospect) was the source of that upward mobility at
once so central and so paradoxical in a monarchial
society based on traditional authority. The effects
were to diminish the strength and influence of the
traditional aristocracy and to soften class and ethnic
distinctions. But color and religious barriers to
advancement remained in place. (S 122)
This model of new nobility was known in Europe as a
countra-balance to the old aristocracy of princes. It was used by
all nations in their process of formation.
In general, however, it may be said that upward
mobility has served the cause of national unity. (Galla
and Eritreans. A.A.) There remain the two barriers it
cannot remove: color and religion. (S 123)
3. THE CHURCH
In Spencer's book there is a photo12: Haile Sellassie
receiving the Archbishop (Abuna). Note that in the kissing of the
ring the role usual in most countries with established churches
is reversed. The Archbishop is kissing the hand of the Emperor.
Orthodoxy was a state religion, a property of a monarch.
John Spencer makes a proper observation on "politics" of
Ethiopian church when he talks about its behavior after the
revolution: "As with the Fascist regime, the church promptly made
its accommodation with the communist Derg." (S 124) It could be
added that the same took place after the Meles government became
the power. The church (almost) never let itself to be in
opposition to the state. Any state.
The state bought in the church. No taxation even on the
Islamic Church. The Church was one of the biggest landowners,
behind the Royal family only.
Alas, there is a divine reason for such submissive role of
the church, it's rooted within the doctrine of the Orthodoxy.
The doctrine remains monophysite in holding that Christ
had but one nature -- the divine, rather than two
natures, the human and the divine, while still
recognizing the Trinity (Sellassie). (S 124)
And the Church survived, during the Italian or marxist
occupation. Deaths of bishop Petros and bishop Mikael made them
into saints. (Four Kilo Square Monument).
Ethiopian Orthodoxy is inclusive. It takes everything in,
and never forgets it. Even today you might find Hebrew symbols
and ever holidays within traditional Ethiopian sacred calendar.
The most striking is the dance of Ethiopian liturgy, which is
objected by their Orthodox brothers -- Russian, Armenians, Greeks
-- and pagan and non-Christian.
Although, there are some historical justification for this
ritual. The Dance of David before the Ark of the Covenant. Dance
of Christ at the last supper.
Ethiopia is all about inclusions: the only Christians who
live simultaneously under the law of Moses and the law of Christ.
Not to mention enormous element of "African" origins. One glance
at the Ethiopian Orthodox cross would give you a sense of
exquisite blooming flower. Something totally opposite to the
protestant sensibility of the "Northern" Christianity.
4. BEYOND THE OBVIOUS
A few notes on Ethiopian Historicity, the way how Ethiopian
history "feels" about itself. Any national history always
includes a national sense of itself. Ethiopians see their history
different than Italians would see it. Ethiopian history is
different for the British. Reaction to history is a part of
historical logic. Without considering this national sense of its
own history we can't fully understand the events, their
motivations and -- therefore the subject itself.
Modern anthropology asks us consider not only facts but also
perceptions of those facts (which are also a part of reality).
They, the Ethiopians, do see themselves differently (next the
western impression of Ethiopians). The same goes for an Ethiopian
perception of "forengies" -- foreigners. During the previous
century, foreigners habitually were referred to as "Turks."
(Muslims, but not Arabs). Now "forengies" are white people. In
many ways Ethiopians are foreigners for Africans. Similar to the
Egyptians, who do not see themselves a s Africans at all.
Ethiopians are essentially "orientals." East Africa, Horn,
marginally African. Southern borders of the Arab world. Northern
animalistic cultures of Africa. In the past -- Egypt, Palestine,
Arabia. The West made him realize that his empire is indeed in
Africa. Five years in Europe brought him to realization that he
is not closer to the west than to Africa. His later days strive
for African leadership came from the time when he saw Ethiopia
and Africa from the outside.
National Psychology is the most culturated inner structure
of anyone's identity.13 Emperor is cultural construct. Haile
Sellassie show himself as no less a king in exile.
If King is an Idea and Ideal is the sacred value14:
Much as politicians in the West wrap themselves in the
flag of the cloak of religion or alleged morality, so
Ethiopian politicians concealed their designs by a
fakkad (approval) from the Emperor. (S 131)
Even the Emperor himself needed this approval from the Idea
of the Emperor.
The old, the traditional -- The Father of People.
The Aqabe Sa'at, the tradition by which each minister and,
indeed, even his subordinates, had direct access to His Majesty,
to report against colleagues and superiors. (S 131)
Un-approachable Majesty was father of all Ethiopians.
There was Chilot, the weekly court where even his humblest
subjects were entitled to present themselves for His Majesty's
personal judgment on their disputes.
5. THEOLOGICAL VIEW OF IMPERIAL POWER
How did the second power, the church, see the Imperial
Model? How was the vertical line "people -- aristocracy -- king"
connect the whole hierarchy with the metaphysics of gods?
The status accorded to the Ethiopian monarch
corresponded very largely with his position as laid
down in the country's traditional legal code, the Fetha
Nagast, or "Laws of the Kings," which proclaimed the
Divine Right of Kings on Scriptual basis. (Pankhurst,
23)15
We know that according to the teachings of the Orthodox
(Eastern) Church, the first king Adam was manifested in three
functions: The King, The Priest, The Prophet.16
5.1. THE PRIEST. "The Elect of God" indicates the divine
nature of Emperor. In Ethiopia, the imperial idea was borne at
the crossroads of European, African, Egyptian and Asian model of
kingship. Ethiopia is the only culture whereby conversion took
place from Judaism to Christianity (10 century B.C. and 4 century
A.D. respectively). Religious dimension of royal power were as
follows: Emperor represents God on earth (Ethiopian Orthodoxy,
monotheism = Christ has one nature only, the divine.) The king
is a priest in God's eyes, God's presence in the eyes of his
subjects.
Ethiopian Orthodoxy proved to be extremely inclusive, what
were the reasons why Judaism, Islam and Paganism could co-
exist under the umbrella of Christianity. In brief, the orthodox
church was an exception in maintaining a peaceful and close
relations with the other religions and their exclusive
ideologies. (see Religion).
5.2. THE PROPHET. The emperor was the informal head of the
church. Prior to the reign of Haile Sellassie the orthodox church
was headed by the pope sent from the coptic church in Alexandria.
It was Haile-Sellassie who for the first time abolished this law
and allowed the pope to be selected from the local Ethiopian
patriarchs. Formally, the emperor must have the church's sanction
as one of the essential elements of accession to the throne (a
coronation was not consecrated without the blessing of the
church).17 According to the prophet concept, king's leadership
requires a "visionary" quality, not only managerial abilities. A
King must "lead" his nation, he must read "God's will." It is
important to remember, that in traditional society the king
himself was understood as a manifestation and the fulfillment of
prophecy, his presence alone expressed God's "text" to the
people.
5.3. THE KING. This quality of imperial power is probably
best known, and can be understood as the rights of blood. But the
two other qualities are no less important; high priests
traditionally formed a special cast and the prophets are the ones
who are blessed with the Holy Spirit at God's will. Anybody could
be a prophet, but the king must possess the quality of a prophet
and a priest.
If king is a model of man than blood is sacred and the
person is dignified all way down to the bottom of hierarchical
pyramid. Not only in king but in everybody. Strangely enough,
this strong concept approaches the human rights issues from the
divine, not the civic grounds.
"The Emperor himself was a servant of the state, so his
subjects should submit their lives and work for it too," writes
Lockot (55). But the model of Modern Ethiopian State was unclear
to anyone, including the emperor. Both parties, the king and his
people, lost their bond -- Imperial Monarchy. The collapse of
the monarchy and the fall of the monarch were to follow. To
answer a rhetorical question of Lefort. In the orthodox mind a
suicide is a murder.
IV. TWO MONARCHS
He had to rule two countries. One which lived in
pre-historical or feudal past and the nation represented by the
best in the capital. At the time to a very few in power it was
obvious that the task for a 20th century Ethiopian emperor was to
modernized his country. Haile Sellassie used the "Japanese
example" as a model for cultural development. "We always had
great admiration for Japan and for the achievement of the
Japanese people in preserving their traditions, and while
acquiring the best of the new, successfully reconciling it with
the best of the old. (E.S.A.)"18 Reforms from above were aimed at
changing the nature of traditional absolute power of the monarch.
The emperor never could find the formula which would allow him to
escape the built-in contradictions of "reformed autocracy."
Emperor v. Negus is the conflict of power, inner contradiction of
absolutism.
The dynamics of changes were the actual causes of the
revolution of 1974. "The Throne, the notables, the Church: the
third pillar of the Empire had not, like the other two, been
destroyed, but it had inexplicably vanished." (Lefort 75) The
nature of the Orthodox church, especially, Ethiopian church, was
to be a state religion. The monopoly of the church was protected
by its full integration within the monarchy and at the same time
separated from real political power (the country always was
equally divided between Muslim and Christian population as far as
numbers are concerned). The church didn't vanished, it was
silent, as usual, -- and it actually survived through all the
political changes. Ethiopian Orthodoxy is among the oldest (4th
century A.D.) and remarkably it never went through any
reformations, it maintained what can be described as a non-power,
apolitical attitude entity.
The church, through independent, has maintained her
special link with the Egyptian Coptic church of Alexandria.
It adheres strictly to the doctrine that confesses the One
Nature of Our Lord Jesus Christ and thus refused to conform
to the teachings at the Council of Chalcedon in A.D. 451.
Since the controversy st the council, the church has
retained its faith, its ancient traditions and customs, and
its way of life. (The Ethiopian Church xxi).
Perhaps, the monotheism is also responsible for the absence
of "dialogism" and flexibility in the Ethiopian mind. The church
did not change this conservative (Orthodox = Right) attitude even
during the revolution, this disinterest in time is the very
essence of Ethiopian Orthodoxy.
V. LATER DAYS IMPERIALISM
Perhaps, "Emperor" is an alien concept for "democratic" and
"republican" mind, which holds exemplary the idea of the
individual would never put "persona" in position of power. We
elect the President, who can govern but not rule. Monarchy with
all its limitations, which after all cost its downfall, had a
greater degree of societal trust. Class society was a product of
social creativity, a result of needs for social self-
organization. A form of government which has functioned for so
long, could be seen as antiquated on managerial level. We see
"imperial principle" as a concentration of power, a monopoly in
economic sense.
What is Emperor from the Marxist's pov?
In Garvey's words:
HOLDING CROWNS
Kings and Emperors do not hold their crowns today by
Divine right. They hold them by superior statesmanship,
such as is being demonstrated to us by the nations of
Europe and America. When the Negroes get this kind of a
sense in their heads they will be able to fight a
successful war in Abyssinia and elsewhere.19
HIM knew it all alone...
How did he come to the summit of Ethiopian power?
He never forgot the Menelik's curse and hoped for his
forgiveness...
(c)2004 HIM contents (summary of the HS web-biography) *
Liberty is always unfinished business. --anonymous
